New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse

Abuse
Intentional harming or maltreatment, whether physical; sexual; psychological and/or emotional. Abuse is generally seen as an act of commission or deliberate act, whereas neglect is seen as an act of omission. That said, the Domestic Violence Act 1995 states that “[a] number of acts that form part of a pattern of behaviour may amount to abuse […], even though some or all of those acts, when viewed in isolation, may appear to be minor or trivial.” Abuse is not a NZFVC Topic Area. However, Topic Areas cover the following forms of abuse: Child abuse and neglect; Elder abuse and neglect; Intimate partner abuse; , including the sub-categories Violence against men; and Same-sex partner abuse; Physical abuse; Psychological/emotional abuse; and Sexual abuse.

Adolescents
An accepted dictionary definition of an adolescent is a person between childhood and adulthood. The NZFVC glossary defines adolescents as people 14 to 17 years of age. Under New Zealand law an adolescent is considered a child (see Children), but can be dealt with in the Youth Court (14, 15 or 16 years of age). The NZFVC definition extends to people up to 18 years of age for consistency with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCROC) definition. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover family violence as it specifically affects adolescents as defined above.

Animal Abuse
Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area address the physical abuse of animals which is a serious and disturbingly common childhood anti-social behaviour that has been linked to domestic violence occurring in the home. This topic also covers the abuse of family pets by adult perpetrators as a form of domestic violence. In this form, animal abuse is primarily a form of psychological and/or emotional abuse.

Asian
This is a very general term of convenience which refers to people of Asian decent. Asia is broadly defined as the area, excluding the middle-east, running east from Pakistan, across the India subcontinent and islands of the Indian Ocean, to south-east Asia, including Indo-china and the islands of Indonesia, as far east as the island nations of the western Pacific Ocean, north to China, Japan, the Korean peninsula, Mongolia and returning west the central Asian ex-Soviet republics. About 60 percent of the world's population live in Asia. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover the experiences of family violence of people of Asian origin or descent resident in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Battering
Battering can be defined as ‘a systematic, continuing pattern of assaults, threatened assaults, intimidation and abuse which produces a dynamic of fear.’ (Jacobson, N.S. (1994). Response: Contextualism is dead: Long live contextualism. Family Process, 33, 97-100: as cited in Robertson, Neville R. (2000). Reforming institutional responses to violence against women. Unpublished PhD Thesis: University of Waikato.) The term reminds us that the meaning of individual acts of violence (e.g. pushes, slaps) can only be fully understood within their context. Some acts of violence are used to defend oneself (e.g. pushing away an attacker) or to express frustration (e.g. a child throwing a tantrum who slaps his or her parent) in ways which have few, if any, implications for the “victim”, while other seemingly innocuous acts (e.g. glaring at someone) can be extremely intimidating if they occur in the context of fear. Battering is not a NZFVC Topic Area.

Care and Contact
Care and contact are terms used in the Care of Children Act 2004 to replace the terms ‘custody and access’. Care refers to the day-to-day responsibility for children's welfare and best interests, including their living arrangements, development and upbringing. The Act defines the term ‘contact’ as including all forms of direct and indirect interaction with the child, such as visits, phone calls and letters. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research and evaluation material relating to both the policy and practice of care and contact.

Care and Protection
Care and protection refers to actions focused on protecting children and young persons from harm, upholding their rights and promoting their welfare. It can also refer to the social services sector of the same name (i.e. care and protection agencies). A child or young person is in need of care and protection when they are at risk of, or have suffered from, abuse or neglect (i.e. physical, psychological or sexual abuse or violence; ill-treatment; or serious deprivation); when parents or guardians are unwilling or unable to care for them; when a child or young person's physical, mental or emotional well-being is being seriously impaired; or when they have committed an offence which gives serious concern for their well-being. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research and evaluation material relating to the care and protection of children or young people in New Zealand.

Child abuse and neglect
The Children, Young Persons and Their Families Act 1989, defines child abuse as “the harming (whether physically, emotionally, or sexually), ill-treatment, abuse, neglect, or deprivation of any child or young person.” Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to all aspects of child abuse and neglect.

Child homicide
As a sub-category of homicide, child death by homicide is variously described as filicide, infanticide, death from maltreatment, manslaughter and murder (Doolan, 2004). Filicide is the murder of a son or daughter by a parent. Infanticide is the killing of a child by its mother by reason of any disorder relating to childbirth to such an extent that she should not be held fully responsible (see Crimes Act 1961, Part 8, section 178). Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover all forms of child death by homicide.

Children
An accepted dictionary definition of child includes a young human being below the age of puberty; ones son or daughter. New Zealand legal definition of ‘child’ varies depending upon the legal context in which the child is being viewed (see Children, Young Persons and Their Families Act 1989; Care of Children Act 2004; Domestic Violence Act 1995). For this reason the NZFVC glossary follows the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCROC) definition of “child”, which states in Article 1, that ‘child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.’ Correspondingly, the NZFVC glossary treats adolescents (14-17 years) as a sub-category of Children (0-17 years). Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover all aspects of family violence affecting children, but not specifically adolescents.

Clearinghouse
An agency for collecting and distributing information, etc. Originally a bankers’ establishment where cheques and bills from member banks were exchanged so that only the balances needed to be paid in cash. The concepts of a shared purpose and/or currency and accruing mutual benefit are the aspects that transfer across these definitions. This is not a NZFVC Topic Area.

Communities
A group of people either living in the same locality – a local community – or a group of people sharing a common interest, beliefs, or identity – a community of choice. This definition can be extended to include a ‘sense of community’, which can be based upon either or both common locality and/or shared identity, values and/or responsibilities. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover research specifically relating to the role of community or communities in prevention and other aspects relating to family violence.

Cultural and professional practice
A way of practicing or a method of intervention that is based on, informed by, or appropriate to, a particular cultural or ethnic group and their values, beliefs, practices and traditions, or accepted the accepted ‘good practice’ of a particular profession. Cultural practice recognises the special and unique nature and needs of the group, as well has the power relationships that exist between that group and dominant culture(s). This includes what is referred to as culturally-appropriate, culturally-safe or culturally-responsive practice. Professional practice involves practice informed by current research and a self-reflexive approach. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research and evaluation material relating to the effects of culturally-appropriate, culturally-safe, culturally-responsive, or professional ‘good practice’, or the lack of any of these, in relation to family violence intervention, prevention and/or treatment.

Cultural factors
Cultural factors relate to the universal and defining capacity of human beings to classify, codify and communicate their experiences symbolically. This includes sets of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of a society or social group, and encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs (UNESCO, 2002). Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area include research that explicitly addresses questions about the values clusters within a society or social group and their relationship to attitude shifts leading to either greater function or dysfunction, especially as these relate to family violence.

Demographics/statistics
The numerical data available in relation to family violence. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover knowledge of the numerical data available in relation to the prevalence and incidence of family violence in New Zealand. This includes its relationship to demographic data and its effects on the production and distribution of wealth for the nation as a whole.

Disability
Physically, mentally, or intellectually challenged or disabled, either congenital or caused by injury, disease, etc. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to disability and any relationship it may have to family violence.

Discipline/punishment
Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to the use of physical punishment and/or discipline, and cover both physical punishment as a form of child abuse and the link between physical punishment and other forms of family violence. In particular, this topic includes the current and on-going debate concerning the proposed repeal of section 59 of the Crimes Act 1961, as a defence against assault on a child. Section 59 reads: "Every parent or person in place of a parent of a child is justified in using force by way of correction towards a child if that force is reasonable in the circumstances."

Domestic violence
The term domestic violence is interchangeable with the term 'family violence', and is defined under the Domestic Violence Act 1995 as: “violence against that person by any other person with whom that person is, or has been, in a domestic relationship.” The Act defines a domestic relationship as: “a relationship with another person if the person is a spouse or partner of the other person; or is a family member of the other person; or ordinarily shares a household with the other person; or has a close personal relationship with the other person.” As in the case of family violence, domestic violence is too general a term to be a useful NZFVC Topic Area.

Drug and alcohol abuse
This topic area takes account of the social and or physical effects of the use of any drugs, whether illegal, addictive, behaviour-altering, or otherwise. This includes anti-depressants, stimulants, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, narcotics, inhalants, designer drugs, alcohol and tobacco. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to drug and alcohol abuse and its relationship to any aspects of family violence.

Education
The education system and matters of concern to it and its members. These include both public and private education entities and providers, and range from the Ministry of Education and related educational agencies, early childhood, primary, secondary and tertiary education providers, and research organisations, to individual education professionals and researchers. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to the education system and its interaction with family violence.

Elder abuse and neglect
The harming (whether physically, psychologically/emotionally, or sexually), ill-treatment, abuse (including financial exploitation), neglect, or deprivation of any person approximately 65 years or older, by a person with whom there is a relationship “implying trust” (Schofield, V. (2004) Elder abuse and neglect: Causes and consequences. In Connolly, M. (Ed.), Violence in Society: New Zealand Perspectives (p. 82). Christchurch: Te Awatea Press). This includes family and care giver abuse, including abuse within residential care, and self neglect. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to all aspects of elder abuse and neglect.

Families
Sets of parents, children, and/or relatives, living together or not. This includes all variants from the predominantly western model of the nuclear family, the more recently common single parent family, those of same sex parents, and all forms of extended families, especially whanau, with or without children. Families/whanau are the basis, or basic building block of a community. The Children, Young Persons and Their Families Act 1989, defines a child’s or young person’s family group as including extended family, in which there is at least one adult member with whom the child or young person has a biological or legal relationship, or to whom the child or young person has a significant psychological attachment, or that is the child's or young person's whanau or other culturally recognised family group. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area may cover all forms, aspects, or knowledge relating to, violence, abuse and/or neglect as it occurs within or in connection with families as defined above or that may come to light in the future.

Financial exploitation
In terms of elder abuse, financial exploitation often involves a family member exploiting the financial resources, whether of their income or assets, of an older person who is dependant upon them. This form of abuse is a significant factor in the area of elder abuse, especially as related to the abuse of enduring power of attorney. In terms of intimate partner abuse and other forms of family violence, financial exploitation is any form of economic abuse or control by the perpetrator, such as forcing someone to work, stopping them working, taking their money, checking up on expenditure, keeping them short of money, and putting debts in their name. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area may cover any form of financial exploitation in any relationship effecting family members.

Gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender people
People, whether male or female, whose sexual preference is toward partners of the same sex (gay); or specifically females who’s sexual preference is toward partners of the same sex (lesbian); or persons who’s sexual attraction is toward either sex (bisexual); and people appearing as, wishing to be considered as, or having undergone surgery to become a member the opposite sex. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover research relating to issues of family violence for gay, lesbian, bisexual and/or transgender people, with the specific exclusion of same-sex partner abuse, which is covered in a separate specific Topic Area.

Gender
The socio-culturally perceived or projected (self-identified) masculinity or femininity of a person. A person’s gender encompasses countless characteristics of appearance, speech, movement and other factors not solely limited to biological sex. Most societies tend to have binary gender systems in which everyone is categorised as male or female, but this is not universal. Some societies include a third gender role; for instance, the fa'afafine of Samoan society, fakaleiti of Tonga, the Native American two-spirit people, and the hires of India. There is debate over to what extent gender is a social construct and to what extent it is a biological construct. Gender associations are constantly changing as societies continually change. By 1980, most feminist writings had agreed on using gender only for socio-culturally adapted traits (adapted from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, entries relating to ‘Gender’, retrieved 12 December 2005). Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover family violence research relating to gender as sets of socio-culturally adapted traits and the use of research methodologies and analyses based upon ‘gendered’ or feminist approaches.

Health
The Health system and matters of concern to it and its members. These include health and well-being, and problems, effects and impacts associated with family violence. It includes organisations and individuals, both public and private health entities and healthcare providers, ranging from the Ministry of Health, Health research organisations, district and regional health boards, hospitals and clinics, to individual health practitioners and researchers. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to the health system and its interaction with family violence.

Homicide
Under the Crimes Act 1961, homicide is the killing of a human being by another, directly or indirectly, by any means whatsoever. Homicide may be either culpable or not culpable. Culpable homicide, in general, is the killing of any person by an unlawful act or omission, and, except in the case of infanticide (see: Child homicide), culpable homicide is either murder or manslaughter. Homicide that is not culpable is not an offence. Murder as culpable homicide if, broadly speaking, the offender means to cause death or injury. Culpable homicide, whether intentional or not, is also murder when committed in relation to a number of other criminal offences, i.e. robbery, kidnapping, arson, etc. Culpable homicide may be reduced to manslaughter due to provocation. Except where it is infanticide, culpable homicide not amounting to murder is manslaughter. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover all of the above forms of homicide except Child homicide (including infanticide).

Incest
Sexual abuse occurring within the family, most often perpetrated by a father, stepfather, grandfather, uncle, brother, adult son, or other male in a position of family trust; but it may also be perpetrated by a female relative. As with sexual abuse, incest is accomplished by physical force or by coercion. Incest takes on the added psychological dimension of betrayal by a family member who is supposed to care for and protect the child (NGO Working Group on Violence Against Women, 2004). The Crimes Act 1961 defines incest as sexual connection between two people whose relationship is that of parent and child, siblings, half-siblings, or grandparent and grandchild; and the person charged knows of the relationship. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover all of the above mentioned aspects of incest.

Indigenous
In relation to people, or more precisely, peoples, the term indigenous can be interpreted as aboriginal, native, or simply not foreign. From a cultural perspective, definitions and connections go deeper than simply a native born generation. In the Aotearoa New Zealand context, Maori are the indigenous people, and this is articulated in the term tangata whenua, the people of the land. Likewise, in many parts of the world there are peoples who hold status as the indigenous inhabitants of their environment, from the Inuit of northern Canada, other Native American or First Nations’ peoples of the North American continent, to Aborigine and Torres Strait Island peoples of Australia, etc. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover the narrower category of studies, some comparative, of indigenous peoples’ experiences of family violence.

Institutional violence
Violence occurring within institutions such as hospitals, schools, prisons, or long term care facilities occurs under the authority of the organisation controlling that institution. It therefore behoves such organisations to reform their policies so that the occurrence of institutional violence is eliminated. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to violence which occurs or is learned within an institutional environment, particularly in hospitals, schools, prisons, or long term care facilities, and which has a resulting effect upon the incidence of family violence.

Inter-sectoral collaboration
Efforts to develop and manage collaboration and partnerships between government and/or non-government agencies working within the family violence sector. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research and evaluation material relating to efforts by government and/or non-government agencies to collaboration towards the prevention and eventual elimination of family violence in New Zealand.

Intimate partner abuse
Intimate partner abuse refers to violence or abuse perpetrated by one partner against another who is their current or ex spouse/de facto/girlfriend/boyfriend/ lover. This term usually refers to violence perpetrated by men against female partners, as this is the most common form of partner abuse, but is also applied to violence perpetrated by women against male partners and same-sex partner abuse. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area specifically cover violence perpetrated by males against their female partners, etc. The NZFVC Topic Areas Same-sex partner abuse and Violence against men cover the other forms of intimate partner violence mentioned above.

Justice
The Justice system, whether criminal or civil, and matters of concern to it and its members. These range from the Police, Departments of Justice, Corrections, the Courts, correctional institutions, members of the judiciary, to individual legal practitioners and researchers. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to the justice system and its interaction with family violence.

Media violence
Depictions of, and/or attitudes towards violence, as they appear in any form of publicly available media. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to the public media’s depiction of violence and attitudes towards it, and the effect this may have on the actual prevalence and incidence of family violence in New Zealand.

Mental Health
The experience of well-being or illness of the mind. This is also an area of health practice relating to illness or well-being of the mind, including psychiatry, psychology and other more general practice. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover experience of mental illness or well-being, and its treatment, as it relates to family violence, both as a cause and consequence.

Migrants
People who have moved from one place, or country, of abode to another. Historically, in the trans-national context, the term ‘immigrant’ has often been used. However, this term is becoming less popular as the continuous nature of global migration is recognised. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover both migrants and refugees, and their experience of family violence in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Neglect
Neglect is defined as a failure to care for. As a point of differentiation from the wider definition of abuse, neglect can be viewed as an act of omission, rather than of commission. As an NZFVC Topic Area, Neglect is treated as a qualifying sub-category in cases where specifically neglect rather than abuse is being studied, and is only applicable to items which are additionally assigned under either Child abuse and neglect or Elder abuse and neglect.

Older persons
Any person approximately 65 years or older. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to older persons and may be, but not necessarily, linked to elder abuse and neglect. This would for instance include custodial grand-parenting, as grandparents take on custodial care of grandchildren for various reasons, including in particular parental neglect of grandchildren and intimate partner violence within the parental relationship.

Pacific peoples
People from or claiming descent from the nations of the Pacific Ocean. More specifically, in relation to New Zealand research, Pacific peoples are defined by their presence within Aotearoa New Zealand. According to Statistics New Zealand, the seven largest groupings of Pacific ethnicities resident in New Zealand at the time of the 2001 Census were Samoan, Cook Island Maori, Tongan, Niuean, Fijian, Tokelauan and Tuvalu Islander (Pacific Peoples in New Zealand, 2001, Statistics New Zealand). Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover family violence as it affects these and all Pacific Peoples, but particularly as residents of New Zealand.

Pakeha
New Zealander of British or European descent. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover, rather than studies of the demographic, dominant culture, ‘control group’, the narrower category of studies that attempt to define and pay particular attention to elements of Pakeha ethnicity and their relationship to experiences of family violence.

Physical abuse
Physical assault, or using, or threatening to use, physical force that results in physical pain, injury or confinement. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover family violence research that specifically looks at the use of physical abuse.

Policy
The course or statement of principle for action adopted or proposed by a group or organisation, whether a government, party, association, or board. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research and evaluation material relating to policy, both government and non-government, particularly, but not exclusively within the New Zealand jurisdiction.

Pregnancy
Pregnancy is an important element within the family violence field for several reasons. Pregnancy is increasingly being identified as a risk factor in relation to intimate partner abuse. It is also becoming a focus for screening for family violence. Un-wanted pregnancy can also result from sexual abuse. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover research looking at pregnancy and family violence and any relationship between the two.

Prevention/intervention/treatment
The three fundamental elements within good or best practice in family violence work. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research and evaluation material relating to practice initiatives in family violence, particularly, but not exclusively in New Zealand.

Protection orders
Protection Orders are court orders, issued to a victim of domestic violence (and their children) upon application to the Family Court under the Domestic Violence Act 1995. A Protection Order is directed at the perpetrator of violence and states that they must not use physical, psychological or sexual violence; damage or threaten to damage property; or encourage others to abuse the victim(s). There can also be non-contact conditions on the Protection Order which require the perpetrator to stay away from and not contact the victim. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research and evaluation material relating to all aspects of the use, access to, and types of protection orders, particularly, but not exclusively within the New Zealand jurisdiction.

Psychological/emotional abuse
The Domestic Violence Act 1995 deems psychological abuse to include, but not be limited to intimidation, harassment, damage to property, and threats of physical, sexual, or psychological abuse. In relation to children, psychological abuse also includes a person causing or allowing the child to see or hear the physical, sexual, or psychological abuse of a person with whom the child has a domestic relationship; or putting the child, or allowing the child to be put, at real risk of seeing or hearing that abuse occurring. Emotional abuse can be seen as a sub-category of psychological abuse. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover all of the above mentioned forms of psychological and/or emotional abuse.

Refugee
Refugees are a sub-category of Migrants who are taking refuge, especially in a foreign country, from war, persecution or natural disaster. This definition is regardless of whether or not any official form of refugee status has been granted. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover refugees’ experiences of family violence, particularly, but not exclusively in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Restorative justice
Restorative Justice is an alternative means of responding to an offence and its effects that places a focus on the people affected by the crime. According to the Restorative Justice Trust, it aims to ‘creatively address the trauma of crime by recognising that victims have many needs which are not met in the current system.’ ‘Victim pain’ is a principal concern, but ‘victim and offender restoration’ is also a priority. Face-to-face meetings with the victim are used to make offenders accountable and support people are invited to assist the parties in achieving reconciliation. As the Restorative Justice Trust states, ‘Restorative Justice tries to achieve accountability, restoration, and reintegration.’ Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover any alternative forms of justice system used within the larger New Zealand justice system, including some tikanga Maori justice processes, and the Family Group Conference model.

Same-sex partner abuse
Same sex partner abuse refers to violence or abuse perpetrated by one partner of the same sex against another who is their current or ex-spouse/de facto/ girlfriend/boyfriend/or lover. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to same sex partner abuse as a sub category of Intimate partner abuse

Sexual abuse
This includes unwelcome sexual advances, exhibitionism, voyeurism, suggestive behaviours or comments and exposure to pornographic material, and involvement of others in activities for the purposes of pornography, as well as all forms of unwanted sexual contact. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area include research relating to all of the above forms of sexual abuse.

Sexual assault/rape
Sexual assault and rape are legally defined in the Crimes Act 1961 under the rubric of sexual violation and attempted sexual violation. Rape is defined as penetration of the victims’ genitalia by the perpetrator’s penis, without that person's consent. Sexual assault, or unlawful sexual connection, differs from rape in that it is any type of sex without a person's consent. Violation of the anus and violation by an instrument are however both commonly considered rape. Sexual assault/rape is a sub category of the NZFVC Topic Area Sexual abuse. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating specifically to the crimes of sexual assault and/or rape.

Social services
Social services providers, whether government or non-government agencies, dealing with aspects of family violence. These include: Child, Youth and Family; Family and Community Services; Woman’s Refuge; Child Abuse Prevention Services; Age Concern; and many other providers. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area aim to cover research relating to all aspects of social service providers work as it related to family violence.

Socio-economic factors
The dynamics affecting the condition of a society with regard to material prosperity, such as labour market, housing, the cost of living, income levels, poverty, income support, etc. This definition extends to cover social class based upon socio-economic factors. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover research relating to economic factors and/or social class, and their effect upon the prevalence and/or incidence of family violence.

Suicide/self harm
The intentional killing, attempted killing, or harm of ones self, from the point of ideation onwards. Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area cover suicide and self harm only as it occurs in relation to family violence.

Violence against men
Items linked to this NZFVC Topic Area specifically cover men who are victims of violence from male family or household members, ex partners of their current spouse/de facto/girlfriend/or lover, and from females who are their current or ex spouse/de facto/girlfriend/or lover, or other family member.

Glossary