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in preventing violence against women
Garth Baker, BA (Social Anthropology), PGDipBusAdmin (Dispute Resolution)
Violence prevention researcher and programme designer
The New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse can be contacted at:
New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse T m a k i I n n o v a t i o n C a m p u s U n i v e r s i t y o f A u c k l a n d P r i v a t e B a g 9 2 0 1 9 , V i c t o r i a S t r e e t W e s t
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R e c o m m e n d e d c i t a t i o n
B a k e r , G . ( 2 0 1 3 ) . E f fectively involving men in preventing violence against women. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse, University of Auckland.
Acknowledgements
Thank you to Dr Michael Flood, Senior Lecturer, University of Wolongong; Tim Marshall, Tauawhi Mens Centre and Daryl Gregory, Wakawairua Ltd, for providing comments on earlier versions of this paper. Thank you also to the Clearinghouse team for supporting this work.
Table of Contents
TOC \o "1-2" \h \z \u HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617453" Terminology PAGEREF _Toc372617453 \h 4
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617454" 1. Introduction PAGEREF _Toc372617454 \h 5
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617455" 2. Reasons for involving men in preventing violence to women PAGEREF _Toc372617455 \h 6
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617456" 2.1 Men as perpetrators PAGEREF _Toc372617456 \h 6
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617457" 2.2 Gender roles, masculinity and violence PAGEREF _Toc372617457 \h 8
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617458" 2.3 Men as prevention partners PAGEREF _Toc372617458 \h 10
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617459" 3. Mens access to power PAGEREF _Toc372617459 \h 11
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617460" 4. Theories and approaches for involving men PAGEREF _Toc372617460 \h 12
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617461" 4.1 Supporting gender equality PAGEREF _Toc372617461 \h 12
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617462" 4.2 Gender transformation PAGEREF _Toc372617462 \h 12
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617463" 4.3 Focusing on social norms PAGEREF _Toc372617463 \h 14
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617464" 5. Strategies for working effectively with men PAGEREF _Toc372617464 \h 15
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617465" 5.1 Principles for working with men PAGEREF _Toc372617465 \h 15
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617466" 5.2 Addressing barriers to men becoming involved PAGEREF _Toc372617466 \h 17
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617467" 6. Engaging men PAGEREF _Toc372617467 \h 18
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617468" 6.1 Building mens motivation PAGEREF _Toc372617468 \h 18
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617469" 6.2 Connecting with men PAGEREF _Toc372617469 \h 20
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617470" 7. What men can do to prevent violence PAGEREF _Toc372617470 \h 22
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617471" 8. Challenges and risks PAGEREF _Toc372617471 \h 25
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617472" 9. Violence prevention work with men in New Zealand PAGEREF _Toc372617472 \h 26
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617473" 9.1 White Ribbon Campaign PAGEREF _Toc372617473 \h 26
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617474" 9.2 Its not OK Campaign PAGEREF _Toc372617474 \h 27
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617475" 9.3 Primary prevention programmes for young people PAGEREF _Toc372617475 \h 28
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617476" 9.4 Particular settings PAGEREF _Toc372617476 \h 29
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617477" 9.5 Culturally-specific approaches PAGEREF _Toc372617477 \h 31
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617478" 9.6 Policy initiatives PAGEREF _Toc372617478 \h 31
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617479" 9.7 Backlash PAGEREF _Toc372617479 \h 32
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617480" 10. Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc372617480 \h 32
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc372617481" References PAGEREF _Toc372617481 \h 34
Terminology
TermDefinitionBystander interventionAction taken by someone who is not the perpetrator or victim, such as speaking out against social norms that support violence, interrupting situations that could lead to violence before it happens or during an incident. It involves having skills to be an effective and supportive ally to survivors. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_1" \o "Banyard, 2007 #50" ADDIN EN.CITE Banyard200750505017Banyard, VL, Moynihan, MM, and Plante, EG,Sexual violence prevention through bystander education: An experimental evaluationJournal of Community PsychologyJournal of Community Psychology46348135420071Family violenceViolence and abuse against any person with whom the perpetrator is, or has been, in a domestic relationship. This can include sibling against sibling, child against adult, adult against child and violence by an intimate partner against the other partner.GenderThe roles, behaviours and expectations that society and cultures expect from males and females. This is different from sex, which is biologically determined.Gender-based violence (GBV)Gender based violence is an umbrella term for physical, psychological, sexual or emotional abuse or harassment that is the result of gendered power inequities.Intimate partner violence (IPV)Includes physical violence, sexual violence, psychological/emotional abuse, economic abuse, intimidation, harassment, damage to property and threats of physical or sexual abuse towards an intimate partner (includes spouses, cohabiting partners, dating partners, boyfriends/ girlfriends and separated or divorced partners).MasculinityThe meanings any particular society gives to being a man.Primary preventionPrevention that focuses on stopping violence occurring. This usually involves working with groups, addressing the risk factors of violence and promoting alternative healthy behaviour.Social normsThe social acceptability of an action or belief; the unspoken rules about what is normal for that group or setting.Violence against women (VAW)
Any public or private act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty.
Introduction
TOC \o "1-1" \h \z \u Engaging men and boys in violence prevention is in the interest of women and girls, but ending gender-based violence is also in the interest of the men and boys.
(Carlson et al, in press) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_2" \o "Carlson, In press #6" ADDIN EN.CITE CarlsonIn press66617Carlson, J. C., Casey, E. A., Edleson, J., Tolman, R., Neugut, T., and Kimball, E. Strategies to engage men and boys in violence prevention: A global organizational perspectiveViolence Against WomenViolence Against WomenIn press2 (pp.5-6)
Engaging boys and men to prevent violence against women has been identified internationally as one of the top 20 practice innovations in violence and injury prevention during the last 20 years. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Kress, 2012 #28" ADDIN EN.CITE Kress201228282817Kress, H., Noonan, R., Freire, K., Marr, A. and Olson, A.Top 20 violence and injury practice Innovations since 1992Journal of Safety ResearchJournal of Safety Research2572634320123 Violence prevention efforts among men and boys can make a difference. Done well, they can shift the attitudes that lead to physical and sexual violence, and change behaviours, reducing males actual perpetration of violence. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Kress, 2012 #28" ADDIN EN.CITE Kress201228282817Kress, H., Noonan, R., Freire, K., Marr, A. and Olson, A.Top 20 violence and injury practice Innovations since 1992Journal of Safety ResearchJournal of Safety Research2572634320123 This paper builds on this development.
The increasing involvement of men and boys has occurred alongside a shift toward primary prevention: the move upstream to stop the perpetration of violence before it starts. ADDIN EN.CITE Flood201114141417Flood, M.Involving Men in Efforts to End Violence Against WomenMen and MasculinitiesMen and Masculinities358-3771432011Kress201228282817Kress, H., Noonan, R., Freire, K., Marr, A. and Olson, A.Top 20 violence and injury practice Innovations since 1992Journal of Safety ResearchJournal of Safety Research257263432012 HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Kress, 2012 #28" 3, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_4" \o "Flood, 2011 #14" 4 The involvement of men and primary prevention share a comprehensive approach across multiple levels of the social order, including targeting the causes of violence against women associated with particular settings, communities, and social dynamics. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_4" \o "Flood, 2011 #14" ADDIN EN.CITE Flood201114141417Flood, M.Involving Men in Efforts to End Violence Against WomenMen and MasculinitiesMen and Masculinities358-37714320114
Men already involved in violence prevention report being nurtured by tangible opportunities to participate, and sustained by a sense of a mandate for action, a deeper understanding of the issues, and the support of peers and a community. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_5" \o "Flood, 2011 #15" ADDIN EN.CITE Flood201115151517Flood, M.Building men's commitment to ending sexual violence against womenFeminism & PsychologyFeminism & Psychology2622120115 This paper explores these conditions, including how they can be used to widen mens involvement in primary prevention activities.
Reasons for involving men in preventing violence to women
Flood HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_4" \o "Flood, 2011 #14" ADDIN EN.CITE Flood201114141417Flood, M.Involving Men in Efforts to End Violence Against WomenMen and MasculinitiesMen and Masculinities358-37714320114 identifies three reasons for involving men in violence prevention:
While most men do not use violence against women, when violence does occur it is largely perpetrated by men.
Constructions of masculinity play a crucial role in shaping mens perpetration of violence against women.
Men have a positive role to play in helping stop violence against women.
Kaufman argues that having men involved in violence prevention provides unexpected insights and builds a broader consensus that mobilises more resources and partners. Not involving men can be a recipe for failure for violence prevention efforts, with some men thwarting or ignoring developments, or inadequately addressing underlying gender systems. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_6" \o "Kaufman, 2003 #26" ADDIN EN.CITE Kaufman200326262627Kaufman, M.The AIM Framework: Addressing and involving men and boys to promote gender equality and end discrimination and violence2003Available from www.michaelkaufman.com6
Men as perpetrators
International population-based surveys show that mens rates of general violence perpetration consistently exceed those of women. This holds true across countries and in relation to different forms of violence. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "UN Women, 2012 #94" ADDIN EN.CITE women201294949427UN Women,UN WomenHandbook for national action plans on violence against women2012New YorkAvailable from www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/vaw/handbook-for-nap-on-vaw.pdf7 The 2011 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (USA) found that in 2010, 28% of heterosexual US women, compared with 10% of heterosexual US men, had experienced intimate partner violence which resulted in them being fearful, concerned for their safety, suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, being injured or needing health, social or legal services. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_8" \o "Walters, 2013 #44" ADDIN EN.CITE Walters201344444427Walters, M.L., Chen J., and Breiding, M.J. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and PreventionThe National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Findings on Victimization by Sexual Orientation2013Atlanta, GA8The Irish National Crime Council survey of intimate partner violence in men and women identified that one in seven Irish women, compared with one in 16 Irish men experienced severe physical, sexual or emotional abuse from a partner at some time. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_9" \o "Watson, 2005 #45" ADDIN EN.CITE Watson200545454527Watson, D, and Parsons, S.National Crime Council of Economic and Social Research InstituteDomestic Abuse of Women and Men in Ireland: A report on the National Study of Domestic Abuse2005Available from http://www.crimecouncil.gov.ie/publications_ncc.html9
A survey of a representative sample of New Zealand women found that the lifetime prevalence of physical and/or sexual IPV was 1 in 3 (35.4%). When psychological/emotional abuse was included, 55% of New Zealand women ever partnered with men had experienced IPV in their lifetime. ADDIN EN.CITE Fanslow201110810810817Fanslow, Janet L.Robinson, E.Sticks, Stones, or Words? Counting the Prevalence of Different Types of Intimate Partner Violence Reported by New Zealand WomenJournal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma741759202011 In the 12 months prior to the survey, 18.2% of women had experienced one or more forms of IPV. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_10" \o "Fanslow, 2011 #108" ADDIN EN.CITE Fanslow201110810810817Fanslow, Janet L.Robinson, E.Sticks, Stones, or Words? Counting the Prevalence of Different Types of Intimate Partner Violence Reported by New Zealand WomenJournal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma74175920201110
Population-based surveys of violence perpetration (as well as victimisation) are also possible. For example, the 1995 New Zealand Hitting Home survey found that 21% of men in the survey had used physical abuse against their partners in the last year. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_11" \o "Leibrich, 1995 #29" ADDIN EN.CITE Leibrich199529292927Leibrich, J., Paulin, J., and Ransom, R.GP PublicationsHitting home: Men speak about abuse of women partner1995WellingtonAvailable from http://library.nzfvc.org.nz/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=345111 While this figure is unacceptably high, it also shows that four out of five men had not used physical violence.
In 2013, findings from one of the first large studies to focus on male perpetrators (rather than female victims) of intimate partner violence and non-partner rape were published. ADDIN EN.CITE Fulu201352525217Fulu, E., Jewkes, R., Roselli, T., and Garcia-Moreno, C.Prevalence of and factors associated with male perpetration of intimate partner violence: Findings from the UN Multi-country Cross-sectional Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the PacificThe Lancet Global HealthThe Lancet Global Health187-207142013Fulu201351515127Fulu, E., Warner, X., Miedema, S., Jewkes, R., Roselli, T., and Lang, J.UNDP, UNFPA, UN Women and UNVWhy Do Some Men Use Violence Against Women and How Can We Prevent It? Quantitative Findings from the UN Multi-country Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific2013Bangkok HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Fulu, 2013 #52" 12, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "Fulu, 2013 #51" 13 The UN multi-country study on men and violence interviewed more than 10,000 men in six countries in Asia and the Pacific (Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Papua New Guinea). The studys findings included:
Nearly half of men reported using physical and/or sexual violence against a female partner, ranging from 26% to 80% across the sites studied
Nearly a quarter of men reported perpetrating rape against a woman or girl, ranging from 10% to 62% across the sites.
In New Zealand (and elsewhere), data from Police and court files is not necessarily representative of the level of violence in the community. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Gulliver, 2012 #86" ADDIN EN.CITE Gulliver201286868627Gulliver, P., and Fanslow, J. New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse, The University of AucklandMeasurement of family violence at a population level: What might be needed to develop reliable and valid family violence indicators?2012Auckland14 However it indicates that male perpetration of violence accounts for the majority of family and sexual violence responses by these agencies. For example, the Ministry of Women Affairs conducted a review of police files coded as sexual violation of an adult for a 2 year period up to December 2007. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Triggs, 2009 #87" ADDIN EN.CITE Triggs200987878727Triggs, S., Mossman, E., Jordan, J., and Kingi, V. Ministry of Womens AffairsResponding to sexual violence: Attrition in the New Zealand criminal justice system2009Wellington15 In these files 99% of the perpetrators were identified as male. Between 2009 and 2012 males made up 72% of the offenders linked to a Police family violence investigation. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "New Zealand Police [Police Data: Personal Communication], 2013 #90" ADDIN EN.CITE Communication]201390909027New Zealand Police [Police Data: Personal Communication],New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse, The University of AucklandPolice family violence investigations. Published in Data Summary 2: Violence Against Women2013April 16Available from http://www.nzfvc.org.nz/?q=data-summaries16 Data derived from the New Zealand Family Court shows that, in the seven years up to and including 2011, 88% of the individuals who had a protection order taken against them (respondents) were male. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_17" \o "Jo Fink Ministry of Justice Analyst Researcher and Evaluator [District and Family Court Data Personal Communication], 2013 #88" ADDIN EN.CITE Jo Fink Ministry of Justice Analyst Researcher and Evaluator [District and Family Court Data Personal Communication]201388888827Jo Fink Ministry of Justice Analyst Researcher and Evaluator [District and Family Court Data Personal Communication],New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse, The University of AucklandPublished in Data Summary 2: Violence Against Women2013FebruaryAvailable from http://www.nzfvc.org.nz/?q=data-summaries17
Mens violence against women also results in more severe outcomes. From the 1999 Canadian General Social Survey, Canadian women were three times more likely than men to be injured as a result of intimate partner violence; more likely than men to report more severe forms of violence; and twice as likely to report being victimised on more than 10 occasions. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_18" \o "Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, 2000 #5" ADDIN EN.CITE Statistics200055527Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics,Statistics CanadaFamily Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 20002000Available from http://www.fact.on.ca/Info/dom/stat2000.pdf18 In addition, women were five times more likely than men to require medical attention, and women were more likely to report being fearful for themselves and their children, to have depression or anxiety attacks or to report sleeping problems or lowered self-esteem. From the Christchurch Health and Development Study, a longitudinal investigation of a cohort of Christchurch children, women who experienced three or more types of psychological or physical violence were more likely to experience major depression or an anxiety disorder than men who experience the same level of violence. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_19" \o "Fergusson, 2005 #89" ADDIN EN.CITE Fergusson200589898917Fergusson, D.M., Horwood, L.J., and Ridder, E.M.Partner violence and mental health outcomes in a New Zealand birth cohortJournal of Marriage and FamilyJournal of Marriage and Family1103-111967December200519
As mens violence is the both prevalent and damaging, it is an appropriate target for prevention strategies. Changing mens attitudes, behaviours, identities, and relations are critical parts of eliminating violence. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_4" \o "Flood, 2011 #14" ADDIN EN.CITE Flood201114141417Flood, M.Involving Men in Efforts to End Violence Against WomenMen and MasculinitiesMen and Masculinities358-37714320114 In later sections this paper discusses some of the rationale and strategies for undertaking this work.
Gender roles, masculinity and violence
There is a clearly established link between how gender roles and masculinity are constructed and displayed at all levels of the ecological model and the level of violence against women. ADDIN EN.CITE World Health Organization201049494917World Health Organization,Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence2010Available from http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9789241564007/en/Flood201116161647Flood, M.Lets Stop Violence Before It Starts: Using primary prevention strategies to engage men, mobilise communities, and change the worldNotes of a one-day workshop/conference, United Against Domestic Violence2011Available from http://library.nzfvc.org.nz/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=3686 HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "World Health Organization, 2010 #49" 20, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_21" \o "Flood, 2011 #16" 21 Where a culture expects masculinity to involve dominance, toughness and male honour there is persistent support for violence. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "World Health Organization, 2010 #49" ADDIN EN.CITE World Health Organization201049494917World Health Organization,Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence2010Available from http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9789241564007/en/20 The UN multi-country study on men and violence ADDIN EN.CITE Fulu201352525217Fulu, E., Jewkes, R., Roselli, T., and Garcia-Moreno, C.Prevalence of and factors associated with male perpetration of intimate partner violence: Findings from the UN Multi-country Cross-sectional Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the PacificThe Lancet Global HealthThe Lancet Global Health187-207142013Fulu201351515127Fulu, E., Warner, X., Miedema, S., Jewkes, R., Roselli, T., and Lang, J.UNDP, UNFPA, UN Women and UNVWhy Do Some Men Use Violence Against Women and How Can We Prevent It? Quantitative Findings from the UN Multi-country Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific2013Bangkok HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Fulu, 2013 #52" 12, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "Fulu, 2013 #51" 13 illustrates the link between men's violence against women, gender inequitable attitudes and some types of masculinity. Men who reported using violence were significantly more likely to:
have gender-inequitable attitudes and try to control their partners
have practices that reflect idealised notions of male sexual performance, such as having multiple sexual partners and engaging in transactional sex
have experienced physical, sexual or emotional abuse as a child, or witnessed the abuse of their mother.
The UN report on mens perpetration of violence found that gender inequitable attitudes contributed to rape, with males citing a common belief that men have a right to sex with women regardless of consent, for example men reported that they raped because they wanted to and felt entitled to, felt it was entertaining or saw it as deserved punishment for women. Previous studies have also found a link between the amount of violence in any given society and the degree to which that society supports flexible gender roles. ADDIN EN.CITE World Health Organization201049494917World Health Organization,Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence2010Available from http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9789241564007/en/Heise199823232317Heise, L.Violence Against Women: An Integrated, Ecological FrameworkViolence Against WomenViolence Against Women262-290431998 HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "World Health Organization, 2010 #49" 20, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Heise, 1998 #23" 22
The World Health Organization notes that while they are located at the societal level, these gender norms play out at the level of community, relationship and individual behaviours. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "World Health Organization, 2010 #49" ADDIN EN.CITE World Health Organization201049494917World Health Organization,Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence2010Available from http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9789241564007/en/20 To a large extent, mens sexual violence is rooted in ideologies that value male sexual entitlement over womens choice, reflecting the prevailing male privilege in that social environment. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "World Health Organization, 2010 #49" ADDIN EN.CITE World Health Organization201049494917World Health Organization,Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence2010Available from http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9789241564007/en/20 Peers and organisational cultures are also known to influence the likelihood of mens perpetration of violence, with higher rates of sexual violence against young women in contexts characterised by gender segregation, a belief in male sexual conquest, strong male bonding, high alcohol consumption, use of pornography, and sexist social norms. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_21" \o "Flood, 2011 #16" ADDIN EN.CITE Flood201116161647Flood, M.Lets Stop Violence Before It Starts: Using primary prevention strategies to engage men, mobilise communities, and change the worldNotes of a one-day workshop/conference, United Against Domestic Violence2011Available from http://library.nzfvc.org.nz/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=368621
Data also shows how the male gender role is enacted within families is also important: if a boy grows up in a family with traditional gender roles he is more likely to physically and sexually abuse women. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Heise, 1998 #23" ADDIN EN.CITE Heise199823232317Heise, L.Violence Against Women: An Integrated, Ecological FrameworkViolence Against WomenViolence Against Women262-29043199822 This is reinforced if he also witnesses men being violent to women in the family. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Heise, 1998 #23" ADDIN EN.CITE Heise199823232317Heise, L.Violence Against Women: An Integrated, Ecological FrameworkViolence Against WomenViolence Against Women262-29043199822 Male economic and decision-making dominance within the family is another strong predictor of violence against women. ADDIN EN.CITE Heise199823232317Heise, L.Violence Against Women: An Integrated, Ecological FrameworkViolence Against WomenViolence Against Women262-290431998World Health Organization201049494917World Health Organization,Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence2010Available from http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9789241564007/en/Heise200681818132Heise, L.Determinants of intimate partner violencePhD diss.2006London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "World Health Organization, 2010 #49" 20, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Heise, 1998 #23" 22, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_23" \o "Heise, 2006 #81" 23
An individual mans proclivity for rape is strongly associated with hypermasculinity: his tendency to overconform to perceived male gender expectations. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Berkowitz, 2004 #4" ADDIN EN.CITE Berkowitz200444455Berkowitz, A.Working with Men to Prevent Violence Against Women: Program Modalities and Formats (Parts One and Two)2004VAW Net: The National Online Resource Center on Violence Against WomenAvailable from http://www.vawnet.org24 These expectations of strength, power and domination can be acted out as risk taking, a lack of empathy and coercive behaviour. Sexual aggression can be seen as validating a socially-sanctioned masculinity. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Heise, 1998 #23" ADDIN EN.CITE Heise199823232317Heise, L.Violence Against Women: An Integrated, Ecological FrameworkViolence Against WomenViolence Against Women262-29043199822 Even if a man is not violent, their attitudes tend to support violence more than womens do. International studies consistently identify that, overall, men are more likely to: agree with myths and beliefs supportive of violence against women; perceive a narrower range of behaviours as violent; blame and show less empathy for the victim; minimise the harms associated with physical and sexual assault; and see behaviours constituting violence against women as less serious, less inappropriate, or less damaging than women do. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_25" \o "Flood, 2009 #19" ADDIN EN.CITE Flood200919191917Flood, M., and Pease, B.Factors Influencing Attitudes to Violence Against WomenTrauma, Violence and AbuseTrauma, Violence and Abuse124-1421022009Available from http://www.academia.edu/attachments/17817393/download_file25
If not challenged, these beliefs reinforce the overall societal views that masculinity involves exercising power over women. This is the scaffold for violence against women, and is reinforced by all levels of the ecological system. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_26" \o "Towns, In press #40" ADDIN EN.CITE TownsIn press40404017Towns, A., and Terry, G. Youre in that realm of unpredictability: Mateship, loyalty and men challenging men who use domestic violence against womenViolence Against WomenViolence Against WomenIn press26 Developing alternative systems and social structures that support nonviolent masculine identities and healthy and equitable gender relationships will only be achieved with the involvement of men.
Men as prevention partners
Men have a crucial role to play as fathers, friends, decision makers, and community and opinion leaders, in speaking out against violence against women and ensuring that priority attention is given to the issue. Importantly, men can provide positive role models for young men and boys, based on healthy models of masculinity. (United Nations Secretary-Generals Network of Men Leaders) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_27" \o "UNiTE to End Violence against Women, 2009 #41" ADDIN EN.CITE Women200941414127UNiTE to End Violence against Women,United Nations Department of Public InformationThe Secretary-Generals Network of Men Leaders Factsheet2009Available from http://endviolence.un.org/factsheets.shtml