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h r I T r H u u n r 0 w w w w w w w I I w w w w w w w r w w w w w w w w w H! Q- : Policy and practice implications:
Child maltreatment, intimate partner violence and parenting
Clare Murphy1, PhD, Nicola Paton2, Pauline Gulliver3, PhD, Janet Fanslow4, PhD
1 Independent counsellor, supervisor and trainer; MNZAC
2 Manager/Community Lead, New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse
3 Research Fellow, New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse
4 Associate Professor, Social & Community Health, School of Population Health, The University of Auckland; Co-Director, New Zealand Family Violence Cleari n g h o u s e
T h e N e w Z e a l a n d F a m i l y V i o l e n c e C l e a r i n g h o u s e c a n b e c o n t a c t e d a t :
N e w Z e a l a n d F a m i l y V i o l e n c e C l e a r i n g h o u s e T m a k i I n n o v a t i o n C a m p u s T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A u c k l a n d P r i v a t e B a g 9 2 0 1 9 , V i c t o r i a S t r e e t W e s t
A u c k l a n d 1 1 4 2 N e w Z e a l a n d
P h o n e : + 64 9 923 4640
Email: info@nzfvc.org.nzWebsite: www.nzfvc.org.nz
ISSN: 2253-3214 (print)ISSN: 2253-3222 (online)
Recommended citation
Murphy, C., Paton, N., Gulliver, P., Fanslow, J. (2013). Policy and practice implications: Child maltreatment, intimate partner violence and parenting. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse, The University of Auckland.
Acknowledgements
Thank you to Professor Jeffrey L. Edleson, Dean, University of California, Berkeley School of Social Welfare; Ter r y D o b b s ( N g a p u h i i w i , T e M a h u r i h u r i N g a t i P a k a u h a p k) , M A ( C h i l d h o o d a n d A d o l e s c e n t S t u d i e s ) ( D i s t ) , P o s t G r a d D i p C h i l d A d v o c a c y ( D i s t ) , C e r t i f i c a t e o f Q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n S o c i a l W o r k ( C Q S W ) ; J i l l P r o u d f o o t , S h i n e ( S a f e r H o m e s i n N e w Z e a l a n d E v e r y d a y ) ; N o v a Salomen, Child, Youth and Family; and Kim Dunlop, registered social worker for providing comments on earlier versions of this paper.
Table of Contents
TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381390" Terminology PAGEREF _Toc353381390 \h 4
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381391" 1. Introduction PAGEREF _Toc353381391 \h 5
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381392" 2. Gendered nature of intimate partner violence and child abuse PAGEREF _Toc353381392 \h 5
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381393" 3. Principles for intervention PAGEREF _Toc353381393 \h 6
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381394" 3.1 Holistic support for children PAGEREF _Toc353381394 \h 8
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381395" 3.2 Support the non-abusing parent PAGEREF _Toc353381395 \h 9
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381396" 3.3 Support the mother-child relationship PAGEREF _Toc353381396 \h 10
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381397" 3.4 Hold the perpetrator accountable PAGEREF _Toc353381397 \h 13
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381398" 3.5 Cultural r e s p o n s i v e n e s s P A G E R E F _ T o c 3 5 3 3 8 1 3 9 8 \ h 1 5
H Y P E R L I N K \ l " _ T o c 3 5 3 3 8 1 3 9 9 " 3 . 6 . 1 T a i t a m a r i k i a n d w h n a u v i o l e n c e : P r e v e n t i o n a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n P A G E R E F _ T o c 3 5 3 3 8 1 3 9 9 \ h 1 5
H Y P E R L I N K \ l " _ T o c 3 5 3 3 8 1 4 0 0 " 3 . 6 . 2 P a s i f i k a P A G E R E F _ T o c 3 5 3 3 8 1 4 0 0 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381401" 3.6.3 Ethnic minority communities PAGEREF _Toc353381401 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381402" 4. Three planet model PAGEREF _Toc353381402 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381403" 5. Multi-agency response PAGEREF _Toc353381403 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381404" 6. Child protection services PAGEREF _Toc353381404 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381405" 6.1 Understanding of intimate partner violence PAGEREF _Toc353381405 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381406" 6.2 Invisible man syndrome, women as culpable victims PAGEREF _Toc353381406 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381407" 6.3 Leave ultimatum PAGEREF _Toc353381407 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381408" 6.4 Criminalising failure to protect PAGEREF _Toc353381408 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381409" 7. Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc353381409 \h 16
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc353381410" References PAGEREF _Toc353381410 \h 16
TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u
Terminology
TermDefinitionChild maltreatmentThe direct maltreatment of children, including physical, sexual and psychological/emotional abuse.ChildrenChildren and young people aged 0-17 years.Intimate partner violenceIncludes physical violence, sexual violence, psychological/emotional abuse, economic abuse, intimidation, harassment, damage to property and threats of physical or sexual abuse towards an intimate partner.Family violenceViolence and abuse against any person whom that person is, or has been, in a domestic relationship with. This can include sibling against sibling, child against adult, adult against child and violence by an intimate partner against the other partner.ExposureIncludes children seeing, hearing, being aware of, becoming directly involved in (e.g. intervening in an attempt to stop the abuse) or dealing with the aftermath of intimate partner violence.Co-occurrence of intimate partner violence and child maltreatmentChildren who are both exposed to intimate partner violence and directly maltreated.FatherChildrens biological fathers, adoptive fathers, stepfathers, foster fathers and other father figures such as their mothers or other primary caregivers new male partner.MotherChildrens biological mothers, adoptive mothers, stepmothers, foster mothers and other mother figures such as their fathers or other primary caregivers new female partner.Intimate partnerIncludes spouses, cohabiting partners, dating partners, boyfriends/girlfriends and separated or divorced partners.Introduction
This paper seeks to stimulate discussion around policy and practice responses related to childrens exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV). It highlights the need to address IPV to increase the safety and wellbeing of children. It also emphasises the importance of working with children, adult victim/survivors and perpetrators, and the need for effective, coordinated multi-agency responses. The paper sets out principles for intervention and includes a particular focus on child protection services.
The paper is based on largely international literature, as the area has been less of a focus of New Zealand research. Discussions with practitioners working in the area were also held. When reporting on studies about violence perpetrated by other family or household members, the terminology used by the researchers has been used (for example, domestic violence or family violence). Related topics, such as family law, are beyond the scope of the paper, as is the evaluation of existing services in this area in New Zealand.
NZFVC Issues Paper 3, Understanding connections and relationships: Child maltreatment, intimate partner violence and parenting, reviewed the evidence base on the co-occurrence of child maltreatment and IPV and ways children are commonly affected by exposure to IPV.
Gendered nature of intimate partner violence and child abuse
This paper works from the understanding that IPV is a gendered issue. While women sometimes perpetrate IPV (against men or in same-sex relationships), the majority of violence is perpetrated by men against women. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_1" \o "Hamby, 2009 #7" ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 1-5 Studies that examine mens and womens use of violence against an intimate partner indicate that men are usually the predominant aggressors and that their violence tends to be more frequent and severe. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_6" \o "Watson, 2005 #12" ADDIN EN.CITE Watson200512121227Watson, DorothyParsons, SaraDomestic abuse of women and men in Ireland: Report on the national study of domestic abuse2005Dublin, IrelandNational Crime Council in association with the Economic and Social Research Institutehttp://www.crimecouncil.gov.ie/downloads/Abuse_Report_NCC.pdf6 As a result, women are more frequently hospitalised for physical injury and more likely to use refuge facilities. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Kimmel, 2002 #9" ADDIN EN.CITE Kimmel200299917Kimmel, Michael S."Gender symmetry" in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research reviewViolence Against Women1332-13638CTS20023
Men are also more likely to use violence as part of coercive control, which has been described as a course of calculated, malevolent conduct which can interweave repeated physical abuse with three equally important tactics: intimidation, isolation, and control. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_2" \o "Stark, 2007 #8" ADDIN EN.CITE Stark20078886Stark, EvanCoercive control: How men entrap women in personal life 2007OxfordOxford University Press2
In addition to findings about the nature of violence perpetrated by men against women, New Zealand research shows that the more severe forms of abuse and injuries experienced by children are also more likely to be perpetrated by fathers, stepfathers or their mothers male partners, particularly younger men. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_5" \o "Centre for Social Research and Evaluation, 2008 #11" ADDIN EN.CITE Centre for Social Research and Evaluation200811111127Centre for Social Research and Evaluation,Preventing physical and psychological maltreatment of children in families2008Review of research for Campaign for Action on Family Violence: Summary of findingsWellington, NZ: Ministry of Social Developmenthttp://www.areyouok.org.nz/files/test/resources/Maltreatment_Prevention_Report_v5.pdf5
In the context of Issues Papers 3 and 4, acknowledging this dynamic facilitates further understanding of the impact of IPV on the health and welfare of the child, and for understanding and assessing how patterns of behaviours affect relationships between partners, and between parents and their children. These patterns of behaviours can carry on after a relationship ends. Understanding this gendered dynamic has important implications for responding to child maltreatment, IPV and the overlap between them.
Principles for intervention
There are a number of studies that outline guiding principles for protecting children and adults exposed to IPV and child maltreatment. Central to each of these studies is the provision of adequate formal or informal support to all parties involved. Healy and Bell (2005) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Healy, 2005 #7" ADDIN EN.CITE Healy200577727Healy, JulieBell, MadeleineAssessing the risks to children from domestic violence: Policy and Practice Briefing No. 72005Northern IrelandBarnardoshttp://www.barnardos.org.uk/p_p_briefing_no.7.pdf7, and Burke (1999) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_8" \o "Burke, 1999 #3664" ADDIN EN.CITE Burke19993664366436645Burke, ChrisBreckenridge, JanLaing, LesleyRedressing the balance: Child protection intervention in the context of domestic violenceChallenging silence: Innovative responses to sexual & domestic violence256-2671999Allen & Unwin8 have identified principles central to the provision of services for families where violence is being perpetrated. Healy and Bells principles are:
Protect the children
Protect the non-abusing parent
Provide supportive resources to the non-abusing parent to help protect and care for the children
Hold the perpetrator responsible for the abusive behaviour
Respect the non-abusing parents right to direct her own life without placing her children at increased risk of further abuse from violence
The authors do not see these principles as conflicting with each other. Burke notes that use of these principles can help counter the structural power of men over women and adults over children. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_8" \o "Burke, 1999 #3664" ADDIN EN.CITE Burke19993664366436645Burke, ChrisBreckenridge, JanLaing, LesleyRedressing the balance: Child protection intervention in the context of domestic violenceChallenging silence: Innovative responses to sexual & domestic violence256-2671999Allen & Unwin8 In addition, these priorities can be used to guide flexible practice, where conflicts of interest arise or practitioners encounter situations that do not fit within dominant patterns (for example IPV in which women are the predominant aggressor or IPV in same-sex relationships). HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_8" \o "Burke, 1999 #3664" ADDIN EN.CITE Burke19993664366436645Burke, ChrisBreckenridge, JanLaing, LesleyRedressing the balance: Child protection intervention in the context of domestic violenceChallenging silence: Innovative responses to sexual & domestic violence256-2671999Allen & Unwin8
These principles are supported by prior research, and by children themselves. In 2001, the United States federal government funded six communities to engage in a coordinated community response aimed at increasing safety, stability and wellbeing for families exposed to IPV and child maltreatment. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_9" \o "Goodmark, 2008 #8" ADDIN EN.CITE Goodmark200888827Goodmark, LeighRosewater, AnnBringing the Greenbook to life: A resource guide for communities2008National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judgeshttp://www.thegreenbook.info/documents/BJA.pdf9 Lessons learned by these communities included: that the best strategy for protecting children involved offering mothers who were abused appropriate services and protection; that being a victim of IPV did not equate to being a neglectful parent; and that separating children from mothers who have been abused should be the last resort.
Interviews from children exposed to violence in the United Kingdom HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_10" \o "Radford, 2011 #70" ADDIN EN.CITE Radford201170707027Radford, LorraineAitken, RuthMiller, PamEllis, JaneRoberts, Jill Firkic, AnaMeeting the needs of children living with domestic violence in London: Executive summary2011London, UKRefuge/NSPCC research projecthttp://www.nspcc.org.uk/inform/research/findings/domestic_violence_london_pdf_wdf85830.pdf10 also emphasise the importance of these principles. Key factors identified by young people exposed to IPV also highlighted:
The need for informal support
Support mothers to protect children
The need for adults, whether from family, community or professional services, to regularly check that children are safe HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_10" \o "Radford, 2011 #70" ADDIN EN.CITE Radford201170707027Radford, LorraineAitken, RuthMiller, PamEllis, JaneRoberts, Jill Firkic, AnaMeeting the needs of children living with domestic violence in London: Executive summary2011London, UKRefuge/NSPCC research projecthttp://www.nspcc.org.uk/inform/research/findings/domestic_violence_london_pdf_wdf85830.pdf10
Informal social support networks like family, friends, others who come into contact with children and schools114 need to be resourced with the knowledge and skills to be able to respond effectively to children and refer them to appropriate services where required.
Holistic support for children
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child emphasises the importance of working in a child-centred way, and recognising the rights of children and young people. A salient feature of this way of working is that children have a right to participate in decisions made about them in line with their age, maturity and culture. Such decisions may include their living arrangements, how they are represented in the Family Court processes, and the types of emotional or social support required. ADDIN EN.CITE Hart200810101017Hart, Amanda SheaBagshaw, DaleThe idealised post-separation family in Australian family law: A dangerous paradigm in cases of domestic violenceJournal of Family Studies291-309142-32008Mullender20022424246Mullender, AudreyHague, GillImam, UmmeKelly, LizMalos, EllenRegan, LindaChildren's perspectives on domestic violence 2002London, UKSage HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_11" \o "Hart, 2008 #10" 11, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Mullender, 2002 #24" 12 However in the context of IPV, this needs to be done with caution as children may align themselves with the perpetrator because he is more powerful (see Issues Paper 3). This can leave both children and mothers at risk of ongoing abuse and further undermine the mother-child relationship.
Children and young people also voice the importance of being able to participate in decisions about their own lives. Mullender et al (2002) spoke with children who have lived with IPV and asked what they considered would be the most helpful forms of response. The children said that they wanted to be listened to, to have their opinions taken seriously, to be told what is going on and to be actively involved in decision-making. Sadly, however, the children reported that they felt that too often their opinions and wishes had been overlooked by both the adults who were involved in the violence, and by the professionals who were attempting to find solutions; this had the effect of making children feel powerless. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Mullender, 2002 #24" ADDIN EN.CITE Mullender20022424246Mullender, AudreyHague, GillImam, UmmeKelly, LizMalos, EllenRegan, LindaChildren's perspectives on domestic violence 2002London, UKSage12 McGee (2000) has reported similar findings with children as young as 4 or 5 years. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "McGee, 2000 #25" ADDIN EN.CITE McGee20002525256McGee, CarolineChildhood experiences of domestic violence 2000London, UKJessica Kingsley Publishers13
Other countries have used childrens views to inform the development of their policy. As the Scottish national domestic abuse policy was being developed, six young people who had lived with IPV were asked to provide input around improving outcomes for children affected by IPV. Their recommendations are presented in Box 1. ADDIN EN.CITE Houghton200812121227Houghton, ClaireMaking a difference: Young people speak to Scottish Ministers about their priorities for the National Domestic Abuse Delivery Plan for children and young people2008The Scottish Governmenthttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/228207/0061829.pdfHoughton20082323235Houghton, ClaireHumphreys, CathyHoughton, ClaireEllis, JaneParticipation of children and young people experiencing domestic abuseLiterature Review: Better Outcomes for Children and Young People Experiencing Domestic Abuse Directions for Good Practice2008EdinburghThe Scottish Governmenthttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/234221/0064117.pdf HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Houghton, 2008 #12" 14, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Houghton, 2008 #23" 15
Box 1: Recommendations from the young people consulted in the course of the development of the Scottish national domestic abuse policy ADDIN EN.CITE Houghton200812121227Houghton, ClaireMaking a difference: Young people speak to Scottish Ministers about their priorities for the National Domestic Abuse Delivery Plan for children and young people2008The Scottish Governmenthttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/228207/0061829.pdfHoughton20082323235Houghton, ClaireHumphreys, CathyHoughton, ClaireEllis, JaneParticipation of children and young people experiencing domestic abuseLiterature Review: Better Outcomes for Children and Young People Experiencing Domestic Abuse Directions for Good Practice2008EdinburghThe Scottish Governmenthttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/234221/0064117.pdf HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Houghton, 2008 #12" 14, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Houghton, 2008 #23" 15
Ensure every child in Scotland has access to a [named] support worker, to offer one-to-one support someone they can trust and confide in;
Train professionals to ensure they understand domestic abuse and know how to help children as knowledge of domestic abuse would help;
Improve childrens access to, and knowledge about, outreach support in the community different help for different scenarios. Confidentiality is key;
Provide groupwork opportunities so that children and young people can build friendships and trust;
Make moving house and refuge life better for children and young people;
Financial aid would be good for starting again to help replace possessions and toys, buy storage and uniforms;
Make more help available at school as well as outside school as school is the key place for children, consider making specialist support available;
Teach teachers better as teachers dont always understand, respond well or take into account the very difficult situation children living with domestic abuse are in;
Teach students about domestic abuse so they can understand and react better to children affected and also can help their friends;
Cooperation between agencies is important, communication needs to improve especially between the police, schools, health, housing with the result that children and their families are treated better;
Improve publicity and information aimed at children and young people its about getting it out, let people know that the help is there and how to access it;
Target campaigns at children and young people and link them to help for children, raise awareness with everyone to increase understanding and stop the stigma;
Create suitable adverts for children and use media where young people will see them: make sure theyre not dark and frighten children;
Provide as many forms of communication as possible for children to access central and local support web, helplines, textlines, email: link a central resource to named local support workers.
Support the non-abusing parent
Humphreys (2007) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Humphreys, 2007 #5" ADDIN EN.CITE Humphreys200755527Humphreys, CathyDomestic violence and child protection: Challenging directions for practice. Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse: Issues Paper 132007http://www.austdvclearinghouse.unsw.edu.au/documents/IssuesPaper_13.pdf16 emphasises the interconnections between women and children and the need to support the non-abusing parent (usually the mother) in order to address childrens safety and wellbeing. She describes the needs of women and children who have experienced violence as separate but linked. Accordingly, focussing interventions on children to the exclusion of supporting the primary caregiver is an inadequate protective strategy. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_17" \o "Douglas, 2010 #18" ADDIN EN.CITE Douglas201018181817Douglas, HeatherWalsh, TamaraMothers, domestic violence, and child protection: Toward collaboration and engagementViolence Against Women53754216201017 Others have also emphasised that effectively targeted services are those that are responsive to the needs of children and mothers addressing safety, maternal health, parenting, helping children to recover from trauma, and building resilience in both mothers and children HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_18" \o "Stanley, 2011 #95" ADDIN EN.CITE Stanley201195959527Stanley, N.Children experiencing domestic violence: a research reviewResearch in Practice2011Darlington18 (emphasis added).
Many women acknowledge that their partners violence and coercive control has impacted on their parenting (and they actively mobilise resources to respond to the violence on behalf of their children). Child advocates state that children also need to be asked rather than practitioners relying on mothers ability to support their children. Enabling, and supporting the non-abusing parent to access a wide range of resources (not just those specific to violence) is also important. Women note that their parenting becomes even more difficult in times of financial or work related stress; when there are physical or emotional problems; or when they are also dealing with the problems of their partner or the concerns, worries and behaviours of their children. ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Mullender, 2002 #24" 12, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "McGee, 2000 #25" 13, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_19" \o "Fish, 2009 #20" 19-24 As a consequence, services need to be equipped to support women to address a variety of needs. ADDIN EN.CITE Humphreys20085656565Humphreys, CathyHoughton, ClaireHumphreys, CathyHoughton, ClaireEllis, JaneThe research evidence on children and young people experiencing domestic abuseLiterature Review: Better Outcomes for Children and Young People Experiencing Domestic Abuse Directions for Good Practice2008EdinburghThe Scottish Governmenthttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/234221/0064117.pdfFish200920202027Fish, EllenMcKenzie, MandyMacDonald, HelenBad mothers and invisible fathers: Parenting in the context of domestic violence2009Discussion Paper No. 7Domestic Violence Resource Centre, Victoriahttp://www.dvrcv.org.au/wp-content/uploads/DVRCV_DP7.pdf HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_19" \o "Fish, 2009 #20" 19, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Humphreys, 2008 #56" 24
Support the mother-child relationship
Childrens safety and wellbeing is highly dependent on the quality of their bond with their mother or primary caregiver. ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_10" \o "Radford, 2011 #70" 10, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Mullender, 2002 #24" 12, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_21" \o "Bragg, 2003 #37" 21, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_25" \o "Robertson, 2007 #60" 25-36 In Australia, resources have been developed to a) assist mothers impacted by IPV to keep children safe HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_37" \o "CDFVR, 2011 #32" ADDIN EN.CITE CDFVR201132323227CDFVRBabies & toddlers: Keeping them safe2011Queensland Centre for Domestic and Family Violence Researchhttp://www.noviolence.com.au/factsheets.htmlCDFVR201133333327CDFVRYoung people: Developing strong, resilient adults2011Queensland Centre for Domestic and Family Violence Researchhttp://www.noviolence.com.au/factsheets.htmlCDFVR201134343427CDFVRChildren 4-12: Growing up in a safe environment2011Queensland Centre for Domestic and Family Violence Researchhttp://www.noviolence.com.au/factsheets.html37-39 and b) to assist practitioners to work with mothers leaving IPV to parent their children in safety. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_40" \o "Coalition Caring for Kids, 2008 #35" ADDIN EN.CITE Coalition Caring for Kids200835353527 Coalition Caring for Kids,Women helping mothers helping children: A resource for working with mothers and their children who have lived with domestic and family violence2008Queensland, AustraliaThe Coalition Caring for Kidshttp://www.tascinc.org.au/wp/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/women-helping-mothers-helping-children.pdf40
Edleson (2011) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_33" \o "Edleson, 2011 #53" ADDIN EN.CITE Edleson201153535327Edleson, Jeffrey L.Emerging responses to children exposed to domestic violence2011Applied Research PaperVAWnet - National Online Resource Center on Violence Against Womenhttp://www.vawnet.org/applied-research-papers/print-document.php?doc_id=58533HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_44" \o "Edleson, 2011 #3363" states that one of the challenges is to develop voluntary systems of care for children who, although exposed to IPV, are not directly maltreated. He notes, These systems of care need to be developed as part of the fabric of communities from which the women and children come if they are to be sustained and culturally proficient. Many of these programmes emphasise the importance of mothers in their children's healing and encourage mother-child dyadic interventions. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_33" \o "Edleson, 2011 #53" ADDIN EN.CITE Edleson201153535327Edleson, Jeffrey L.Emerging responses to children exposed to domestic violence2011Applied Research PaperVAWnet - National Online Resource Center on Violence Against Womenhttp://www.vawnet.org/applied-research-papers/print-document.php?doc_id=58533 In the context of IPV, interventions to support mothers and children benefit from including a focus on supporting them to strengthen or re-establish their relationship, which may have been damaged by exposure to violence. ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_30" \o "Humphreys, 2010 #79" 30, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_33" \o "Edleson, 2011 #53" 33, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_41" \o "Humphreys, 2008 #68" 41-44
Many, although not all, children want the opportunity to talk to their mothers about abuse. ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Mullender, 2002 #24" 12, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "McGee, 2000 #25" 13, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Houghton, 2008 #23" 15 Humphreys (2007, 2010) ADDIN EN.CITE Humphreys200740404017Humphreys, CathyTalking to my mum: Strengthening relationships between mothers and children in the aftermath of family violenceSocial Work Now: The Practice Journal of Child Youth and FamilySeptember2007Humphreys201041414147Humphreys, CathyStrengthening the mother-child relationship in the aftermath of domestic violenceStrengthening service support and safety: Mothers, children and change - Video UNSWTV: Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences 2010http://tv.unsw.edu.au/video/professor-cathy-humphreys HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_45" \o "Humphreys, 2007 #40" 45, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_46" \o "Humphreys, 2010 #41" 46 developed innovative activities to help mothers and children talk to each other about their shared experiences of IPV, as a way of counteracting perpetrator efforts to undermine the relationship and communication between mothers and their children. The intervention was designed to be delivered by services working with the family, and was based around activities that the children reported enjoying doing with their mothers. Activities were focused on building self-esteem and confidence; identifying and talking about feelings; staying safe; and strengthening communication to allow them to talk about aspects of their lives that may have previously been clouded in secrecy. ADDIN EN.CITE Humphreys200740404017Humphreys, CathyTalking to my mum: Strengthening relationships between mothers and children in the aftermath of family violenceSocial Work Now: The Practice Journal of Child Youth and FamilySeptember2007Humphreys201041414147Humphreys, CathyStrengthening the mother-child relationship in the aftermath of domestic violenceStrengthening service support and safety: Mothers, children and change - Video UNSWTV: Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences 2010http://tv.unsw.edu.au/video/professor-cathy-humphreys HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_45" \o "Humphreys, 2007 #40" 45, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_46" \o "Humphreys, 2010 #41" 46 After feedback from the children participating in the intervention, Humphreys indicated that one gained the impression that any joint activity may have been helpful.HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_41" \o "Humphreys, 2010 #3352"41 She stated that it was not the activities that were of chief importance, but that the support workers understood that the perpetrators attack on the mother-child relationship had resulted in its deterioration.
In Australia, two child and infant led interventions have been developed by Bunston and colleagues ADDIN EN.CITE Bunston200833873387338717Bunston, WendyBaby lead the way: Mental health group work for infants, children and mothers affected by family violenceJournal of Family StudiesJournal of Family Studies334341142008Bunston201233883388338827Bunston, WendySketchley, RobynRefuge for babies in crisis: How crisis accommodation services can assist infants and their mothers affected by family violence2012Victoria, AustraliaThe Royal Childrens Hospital Integrated Mental Health Programhttp://www.rch.org.au/emplibrary/mhs/Refuge_for_Babies_Manual.pdf HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_47" \o "Bunston, 2008 #3387" 47, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_48" \o "Bunston, 2012 #3388" 48 at the Royal Childrens Hospital Integrated Mental Health Service. Infant groups (the Peek-a-boo Club) focus on children 0-3 years of age. In these groups, mothers discuss their own experiences of the violence they have experienced while the infant plays. They are then encouraged to reflect on the activities of their infant during these discussions and how they might be communicating about their internal world. Mothers reported improvements in the quality of attachment between the mother and child, reductions in hostility and increased enjoyment of their infant (Bunston et al 2008, cited in Bunston 2008). HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_47" \o "Bunston, 2008 #3387" ADDIN EN.CITE Bunston200833873387338717Bunston, WendyBaby lead the way: Mental health group work for infants, children and mothers affected by family violenceJournal of Family StudiesJournal of Family Studies33434114200847
The second group programme is called PARKAS (Parents accepting responsibility kids are safe), and works with mothers and children aged 8-12 years. The overall aim of the programme is to encourage healthy communication between the mother and the child. Following an initial assessment, and in their own group, children are encouraged to explore their experience of violence through play and drawing. In separate group sessions, mothers are encouraged to do the same activities, exploring what they think has been the experience of the violence through the minds of their child. Pictures are shared between the groups so that mothers develop an understanding of what their child might be thinking and experiencing. The facilitators work across the PARKAS groups, ensuring consistency, and that the groups come together at the start, middle and end of the programme to allow the mother and child to work directly together.
An evaluation showed significant improvements in lowering the number of difficulties children were experiencing, a reduction in distressing emotional symptoms and improved peer relationships. It also found an increase in behavioural issues for a group of children. The facilitators suggested this was due to the amelioration of traumatic symptoms and the movement from internalising feelings to more overt expression of strong emotions, representing a shift from avoidance to coming to life (Bunston and Henynatz 2006, p.158, cited in Humphreys 2008). HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_41" \o "Humphreys, 2008 #68" ADDIN EN.CITE Humphreys20086868685Humphreys, CathyHoughton, ClaireHumphreys, CathyHoughton, ClaireEllis, JaneProvision for children and young people experiencing domestic abuseLiterature review: Better outcomes for children and young people experiencing domestic abuse Directions for good practice2008EdinburghThe Scottish Governmenthttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/234221/0064117.pdf41
Other programmes focus on improving parenting styles to target specific aspects of a childs behaviour in response to exposure to violence. For example, Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) has a strong focus on reducing disruptive behaviour through developing improved parenting skills, while at the same time seeking to improve the parent-child relationship. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_35" \o "Borrego, 2008 #30" ADDIN EN.CITE Borrego200830303017Borrego, Joaquin Jr.Gutow, Mindy R.Reicher, ShiraBarker, Chikira H.Parentchild interaction therapy with domestic violence populationsJournal of Family Violence49550523200835 The programme has been shown to reduce child maltreatment in families involved with child protection services, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_49" \o "Chaffin, 2004 #97" ADDIN EN.CITE Chaffin200497979717Chaffin, M.Silvosky, J. F.Funderburk, B.Valle, L. A.Brestan, E. V.Balachova, T.et al,Parent-child interaction therapy with physically abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reportsJournal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology500-51072200449 while also reducing mothers stress levels HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_50" \o "Eyeberg, 2001 #98" ADDIN EN.CITE Eyeberg200198989817Eyeberg, S. M.Funderburk, B. W.Hembree-Kigin, T.McNeil, C. B.Querido, J. G.Hood, K.Parent-child interaction therapy with behaviour problem children: One and two year maintenance of treatment effects in the familyChild and Family Behavior Therapy1-2023200150 and improving their feelings of control over their childs behaviour. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_51" \o "Hood, 2003 #99" ADDIN EN.CITE Hood200399999917Hood, K.Eyeberg, S. M.Outcomes of parent-child interaction therapy: Mothers reports on maintenance three to six years after treatmentJournal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology419-42932200351
In New Zealand, some specialist IPV services provide childrens programmes, such as Refuge Youth and KIDshine. The KIDshine programme uses joint visits by womens and childrens advocates to:
Establish rapport and trust with the child
Develop safety plans for the child
Talk with the child in ways that allow them to begin to make sense of what has happened in their home
Make an assessment of the level of trauma experienced and refer the child for ongoing help if needed
Discuss with the parent about the effects the violence has had upon the child.
Suggest how to manage and assist a child who has been traumatised
Follow up referrals to appropriate services for ongoing intervention
The programme has been independently evaluated. The evaluation included face-to-face interviews with 16 children and their mothers from nine families and w h n a u a n d a n a d d i t i o n a l e i g h t t e l e p h o n e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h m o t h e r s . M o t h e r s a n d c h i l d r e n f r o m a l l f a m i l i e s a n d w h n a u i n d i c a t e d p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e s f r o m t h e a d v o c a t e s v i s i t s a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f c h i l d r e n a n d m o t h e r s n o t e d p o s i t i v e c h a n g e s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n . T h e re was an overall positive change in the wellbeing of just under half of the 226 child participants (42%) from 89 families during the three week implementation period of KIDshine (i.e. the three week period of the child advocate visits). HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_52" \o "Bennett, 2004 #100" ADDIN EN.CITE Bennett200410010010027Bennett, S.Coggan, C.Fill, J.Lee, M.An evaluation of the child crisis intervention project2004FebruaryAucklandInjury Prevention Research Centre, University of Auckland52 Shine has also published a snapshot of the voices of children accessing the KIDshine programme. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_53" \o "Mittal, 2012 #50" ADDIN EN.CITE Mittal201250505027Mittal, PrachiCarrington, HollyThey didnt see it. They were sleeping. The voices of children who live with family violence, as heard by KIDShine2012AucklandSafer Homes in New Zealand Everydayhttp://www.2shine.org.nz/library/Documents/KIDshine%20They%20were%20sleeping2012.pdf53 Shine states that one of the most important ways KIDshine works is to deal with the effects of trauma by assisting mothers and children to re-establish their bonds. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_53" \o "Mittal, 2012 #50" ADDIN EN.CITE Mittal201250505027Mittal, PrachiCarrington, HollyThey didnt see it. They were sleeping. The voices of children who live with family violence, as heard by KIDShine2012AucklandSafer Homes in New Zealand Everydayhttp://www.2shine.org.nz/library/Documents/KIDshine%20They%20were%20sleeping2012.pdf53 However these programmes typically receive very limited funding, and are not available throughout the country. A 2012 West Auckland project highlighted the lack of services for children who do not meet CYFs threshold for further action.114 Humphreys (2007) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Humphreys, 2007 #5" ADDIN EN.CITE Humphreys200755527Humphreys, CathyDomestic violence and child protection: Challenging directions for practice. Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse: Issues Paper 132007http://www.austdvclearinghouse.unsw.edu.au/documents/IssuesPaper_13.pdf16 emphasises that all children exposed to IPV require access to appropriate services.
The emphasis on supporting the mother-child bond does not discount opportunities to provide support to a whole wh n a u o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o s u p p o r t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o r r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c h i l d s b o n d w i t h a n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t c a r e g i v e r . I n s t e a d , t h e s e s t u d i e s i l l u s t r a t e t h a t p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t t o i n c r e a s e e f f e c t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t c a n i m p r o v e t h e m o ther-child relationship, which is, in turn, a fundamental component to reducing the impact of IPV on children. Understanding the importance of the childs relationship with a non-abusive adult, and the communication and emotional support skills that occur as part of the relationship are the salient features that need to be fostered.
Hold the perpetrator accountable
Humphreys (2007) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Humphreys, 2007 #5" ADDIN EN.CITE Humphreys200755527Humphreys, CathyDomestic violence and child protection: Challenging directions for practice. Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse: Issues Paper 132007http://www.austdvclearinghouse.unsw.edu.au/documents/IssuesPaper_13.pdf16 argues that the most effective form of child protection focuses on holding men who perpetrate IPV accountable for their abuse, and having them end their use of domination and control. This requires both awareness and acknowledgement that many children and women will continue to have contact with men who have abused them as a result of shared parenting arrangements. It also requires a shift in child protection practices, which traditionally focus on children and their mothers/non-abusing parents, to the exclusion of involvement with the perpetrator. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Humphreys, 2007 #5" ADDIN EN.CITE Humphreys200755527Humphreys, CathyDomestic violence and child protection: Challenging directions for practice. Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse: Issues Paper 132007http://www.austdvclearinghouse.unsw.edu.au/documents/IssuesPaper_13.pdf16
Internationally, child protection workers increasingly refer men who use IPV to stopping violence programmes HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_21" \o "Bragg, 2003 #37" ADDIN EN.CITE Bragg200337373727Bragg, H. LienChild protection in families experiencing domestic violence. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services2003http://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/usermanuals/domesticviolence/domesticviolence.pdf21 however generally these programmes do not address parenting. Scott (2012) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_54" \o "Scott, 2012 #3282" ADDIN EN.CITE Scott201232823282328227Scott, Katreena L.Parenting interventions for men who batter2012http://www.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_ParentingInterventions.pdf54 highlights that failing to provide parenting interventions for men who have used violence and continue to have contact with their children inadvertently makes mothers solely responsible for assessing, monitoring and responding to concerns about mens parenting.
In their extensive work with men who use IPV, Bancroft and Silverman (2012) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_55" \o "Bancroft, 2012 #80" ADDIN EN.CITE Bancroft20128080806Bancroft, LundySilverman, Jay G.Ritchie, DanielThe batterer as parent: Addressing the impact of domestic violence on family dynamics22012Thousand Oaks, CASage55 state that they have not encountered spontaneous improvement in mens parenting behaviours (that is, intervention was necessary to support this change). Arean and Davis (2007) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_56" \o "Arean, 2007 #101" ADDIN EN.CITE Arean20071011011015Arean, J. C.Davis, L.Edleson, J. L.Williams, O. J.Working with fathers in batterer intervention programsParenting by men who batter: new directions for assessment2007New YorkOxford University Press56 indicate that reparation and behaviour change towards positive parenting is a long and difficult process that requires more than a year of programme attendance. Specialist parenting programmes need to be developed for parents who are perpetrators (and, separately, victim/survivors) of IPV because general parenting programmes can have unintended negative results. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_55" \o "Bancroft, 2012 #80" ADDIN EN.CITE Bancroft20128080806Bancroft, LundySilverman, Jay G.Ritchie, DanielThe batterer as parent: Addressing the impact of domestic violence on family dynamics22012Thousand Oaks, CASage55
Examples of such specialist programmes include Victoria, Australias Parenting After Violence and Dads Putting Kids First HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_57" \o "Department of Human Services, 2012 #45" ADDIN EN.CITE Department of Human Services201245454527Department of Human Services,Good practice: Working together to support children and young people experiencing family violence2012Melbourne, Vic, AustraliaState Government of Victoriahttp://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/about-the-department/documents-and-resources/reports-publications/good-practice-working-together-to-support-children-and-young-people-experiencing-family-violence57 and United States initiatives documented by Scott (2012). HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_54" \o "Scott, 2012 #3282" ADDIN EN.CITE Scott201232823282328227Scott, Katreena L.Parenting interventions for men who batter2012http://www.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_ParentingInterventions.pdf54 A review of pioneering intervention programmes in the United States found they had four aspects in common: use of a motivational approach around mens desire to be good fathers; emphasis on the need to end violence against their childrens mothers (they cannot be a lousy partner, but a good dad); accountability for past abuse; and intervention to reduce fathers use of harsh discipline. One area in which there is debate is how to avoid unintended consequences. This is based on the acknowledgment that not all men will benefit from intervention, and that in some cases fathers will represent an ongoing risk to their children and partners/ex-partners. Programmes may also inadvertently increase risk, for example, through fathers being awarded increased contact with children by family courts due to having completed a programme, even if their behaviour has not changed. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_54" \o "Scott, 2012 #3282" ADDIN EN.CITE Scott201232823282328227Scott, Katreena L.Parenting interventions for men who batter2012http://www.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_ParentingInterventions.pdf54
Bancroft and Silverman (2012) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_55" \o "Bancroft, 2012 #80" ADDIN EN.CITE Bancroft20128080806Bancroft, LundySilverman, Jay G.Ritchie, DanielThe batterer as parent: Addressing the impact of domestic violence on family dynamics22012Thousand Oaks, CASage55 suggest four specific indicators to assess change in a perpetrators orientation towards his children:
Has he displayed a number of years (as opposed to weeks or months) of consistently improved parenting behaviour?
Are there any indicators that apparent improvements in parenting behaviour are actually intended to control or punish his ex-partner, for example by turning the children against her?
How well has he participated in parenting education programmes and has he taken other steps to enhance his parenting?
Has he accepted full responsibility for previous problems in his parenting behaviours, identified the attitudes that drove those behaviours and developed the ability to empathically discuss the effects his behaviours have had on his children? (p.230) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_55" \o "Bancroft, 2012 #80" ADDIN EN.CITE Bancroft20128080806Bancroft, LundySilverman, Jay G.Ritchie, DanielThe batterer as parent: Addressing the impact of domestic violence on family dynamics22012Thousand Oaks, CASage55
Active use of these criteria may assist practitioners in identifying those fathers who are committed to the safety of their children, and invested in re-building relationships with them. As stated above, childrens and young peoples views about contact with their fathers also need to be taken into account.
Cultural responsiveness
Supports provided to children, parents (victim/survivors and perpetrators), families and wh n a u m u s t b e a p p r o p r i a t e a n d r e s p o n s i v e t o a f a m i l y s c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t .
T a i t a m a r i k i a n d w h n a u v i o l e n c e : P r e v e n t i o n a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n
M u c h o f t h e r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o M o r i i n t h e f i e l d o f w h n a u v i o l e n c e h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n b y n o n - M o r i u s i n g d e f i c i t a n d / o r p a t h o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s . M o r i a c a d e m i c s , h e a l t h , w e l f a r e , e d u c a t i o n a n d j u s t i c e p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r g u e t h a t m o d e l s o f a n a l y s i s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n m e t h o d o l o g i e s b a s e d o n W e s t e r n o r m a i n s t r e a m t h i n k i n g h a v e b e e n c o n s i s t e n t l y i n e f f e c t i v e f o r M o r i . H Y P E R L I N K \ l "_ENREF_58" \o "Grennell, 2006 #104" ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 58-61 The predominant models for violence prevention have also developed primarily out of violence research involving Western populations that do not readily translate cross culturally, or adequately address the complex range of factors that underlie the high levels of violence often found in indigenous communities. HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_62" \o "Eruera, 2010 #3861" ADDIN EN.CITE Eruera20103861386138616